INTRODUCTION:

The plasma therapy is mostly used for the treatment of many types of disease. In this therapy, the antibodies are separate from the blood and these antibodies are transferred into the patient’s blood those affected by any critical disease.^[1] the Platelet rich plasma (PRP) is widely used for the treatment of critical disease, it was firstly used in open heart surgery.^[2] The PRP is obtained from the normal person blood. When we received the blood from the healthy person’s, these bloods are placed in the circle tube and centrifuged for 15 min. Through this process, blood plasma is separate from the other blood contents. After separation of plasma remaining blood constituents are returned into the body.^[3]

The platelets are disc shape cell and its life span is about 8-10 days.^[4] In platelets containing plasma many growth factors are present like as- Platelets derived growth factors, transforming growth factors and vascular endothelial growth factor. The growth factors and cytokines are essential for the reducing of inflammation and effective in wound healing, muscles cramps and breaking of ligaments.^[5]These factors are essential for the curing/healing of disease because these are fight against infections^[6] like as, the plasma derived factors is mostly used in the treatment of cardiac muscle injury, nerve injury, alopecia, ocular epithelial defects, osteoarthritis, tendonitis and other related metabolic disorders.^[7] The plasmapheresis is a technique that used for the separation of platelets from the blood, in which the separate of plasma and remaining blood cells are re infused in body. The volume of separated plasma is replaced by specific fluids that maintain the total blood volume.^[8]

Types:

In platelets rich plasma (PRP), the two main granules are present- alpha granules and dense granules. The alpha granule is consisting of seven different factors and these are regulating the proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis, and chemotaxis process of human cell. These factors are:

· Platelet derived growth factors aa (PDGF aa)

· Platelet derived growth factors bb (PDGF bb)

· Platelet derived growth factors ab (PDGF ab)

· Transforming growth factor β1(TGF β1)

· Transforming growth factor β2(TGF β2)

· Epithelial growth factor (EGF)

· Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).^[9]

The dense granule is consisting through bioactive factors and these factors are regulating the inflammatory reaction and enhance the cell permeability. Some important dense granules are- serotonin, histamine, dopamine, calcium, and adenosine.^[10,11]

Functions of Blood Plasma Factor:

The factors are essential for immune system because they promote the immunity and blood coagulation that is prevent the infections of various critical diseases and protect the body.^[12] Some other important functions of platelets factor are:

1. It is essential for the formation of blood vessels and clotting of blood.^[13]

2. It is also used in the treatment of infertility and embryonic development, inflammation, chemotaxis, neutrophil degranulation and calcium homeostasis.^[14]

3. The TGF-β1 is mostly used in the transplantation of embryo in uterus and TGF-β is also used in embryonic development, reproductive process by enhancing endometrial proimplantatory Leukemia Inhibitory Factor (LIF).^[15]

4. The IGFs is essential for the regulation of spermatogenesis and it enhance the motility of spermatozoa and increase the production of sperm in a male candidate.^[16]

5. The EGF is accumulating in the follicle that present in fallopian tube at the time of ovulation in female and other than its present in saliva, milk, plasma and urine. In male, it increases the process of spermatogenesis.^[17]

6. The IGF-2 is also used for the development of embryo and fetal in female therefore it is a growth promoting factor.^[18]

7. The connective Tissue Growth Factor (CTGF) is essential for the repairing of damaged tissue, muscle and in cell adhesion, migration.^[19]

Adverse Effect of Blood, Plasma Transfusion on Body:

The plasma is derived from the blood and it contains many components that cause major adverse effect when it used for the therapy. Plasma contains many components that react with it and produce adverse effect on receiver person like as- The antigenic heterogeneity of plasma proteins and the antibodies are react with cellular components that is responsible for plethora like complication. The plasma associated complications are divided into two main categories i.e. Acute and Delayed. ^[20]

1. Acute Transfusion Reaction:

This type of complication is onset reactions of plasma contents and it is the serious hazards of blood transfusion because it produces within 24 hours after blood transfusion.^[21] Some acute transfusion reactions are- Acute Hemolytic Transfusion Reactions, Febrile Non hemolytic Transfusion Reactions, Allergic and Anaphylactic Reactions, Transfusion-Associated Circulatory Overload (TACO), and Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injury (TRALI).^[22]

A. Acute Hemolytic Transfusion Reactions:

It produces by the interactions between the antibodies of recipient plasma and antigens of transfused blood cells. ^[23] The most cases of AHTR is causes through the immunoglobulin M(IgM) anti-A is transfused into the wrong patients instead of actual patients and may occur cross matching between the two different blood contents. ^[24] A variety of symptoms may produce during the reactions like as- dyspnea, rise in temperature, increase heart rate, chest or back pain, chills, and abnormal bleeding or shock.^[25] According to researchers, more than 30 patients are died through ABO-mediated and non-ABO mediated antibodies transfusion in last five years.^[26] When anti-A and anti-B are transfused into the body through the intravascular, they cause hemolysis due to the complex formation on membrane.^[27] These complex are help in the release of vasoactive amine, interleukins, tumor necrosis factor and histamine these are help in the coagulation and fybrinolysis.^[28]

B. Febrile non hemolytic transfusion reactions:

The febrile non hemolytic transfusion is a onset adverse effect of transfused blood in patients body, after transfusion the doctors are observed the increase in temperature of patients body (Approximate 1^oC).^[29] These reaction are produce by the cytokines, it caused by the reactions between the antibodies and white blood cells of product. So, these types of reaction are prevented by the use of antipyretics drugs before the transfusion.^[30]

C. Transfusion-Associated Circulatory Overload (TACO):

The TACO is very dangerous adverse reaction related to the blood transfusion and it is the second most common adverse effect of blood transfusion and its fatality rate is high than the FNTR.^[31] This adverse effect is producing within 8 hours of blood transfusion. The administered volume of blood is depend on the patients characteristics like as body weight, age, disease state and types of diseases.^[32] The older patients and the child under age 3 those are suffered from cardiogenic pulmonary edema and with renal dysfunction, the blood transfusion are very dangerous for these types of patients.^[33] Patients who require transfusion therapy and these are suffered from risk of TACO and should receive the blood product so the infusion rate of blood is very slows; if possible, only one unit of blood product is should be infused at a time and diuretic therapy should be administered, along with this therapy, the supplemental oxygen therapy and nitrates may be used to treat TACO.^[34] The pretransfusion process is very essential for preventing the risk of TACO. If we follow pretransfusion protocol so we protect the patients from the TACO like adverse effect such as- severe hypokalemia, pulmonary edema and respiratory failure.The pretransfusion diuretics therapy can be reduce the risk of TACO.^[35]

D. Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injury:

The TRALI is define as a onset action on lungs within 7 hours during the transfusion process.^[36] It cause respiratory distress, hypoxemia, and non cardiogenic pulmonary edema in blood receiving patients under few hours.^[37] It produce through the antibodies of white blood cells, human neutrophil antigen, cytokines and inflammatory molecules, it act on the lungs and it injured the membrane of alveolar capillary because it cause the degranulation of granulocytes.^[38] The TRALI is followed two hit models

1. Neutrophils are primed and sequestered in the lungs due to an underlying clinical condition.

2. These factors are activated by the infusion of antibodies or biological response modifiers.^[39]

The neutrophils is very dangerous for lungs because if produce in access amount it accumulate in the lungs and other organ like as- Liver and CNS.^[40] The fever is common symptoms of TRALI. The mortality rate is approximate 5% to 25% of TRALI. The symptoms of TRALI are reducing through the use of corticosteroids, steroids and diuretic agents.^[41]

2. Delayed Transfusion Reactions:

In the delayed transfusion reaction, the reactions of blood contents may occur several days to years after blood transfusion. Some important delayed reactions are- delayed hemolytic reactions, transfusion-associated graft versus host disease (TA-GVHD), post transfusion purpura, and transfusion-related immunomodulation (TRIM).^[42]

A. Delayed Hemolytic Reactions:

This type of adverse effect is shown within 4-10 days after transfusion. Mainly it caused by the incompatibility/interaction of antibodies of recipient’s plasma and antigen on transfused RBCs. This adverse effect is very harmful for the receiver because through this reaction may be produce low grade fiver, mild jaundice and decrease the level of hemoglobin due to hemolysis.^[43] This adverse effect is reduced by the use of a new RBC alloantibody that bind with the antigen of RBCs. After the transfusion of alloantibodies in recipients’ body, adverse effect like as jaundice and hemolysis is not observed.^[44]

B. Transfusion-Associated Graft Versus Host Disease (TA-GVHD):

This type of adverse effect is seen in weak immunity patients if it received blood/plasma.^[45] When immunocompromised patients received allogenic stem cell these patients show TA-GVHD like adverse effect such as fever, rash, and diarrhea occurring after of blood transfusion within a few days, but may also present as hepatitis or marrow dysfunction.^[46] These adverse effect is high risk in lymphoid malignancies patients, it observed on a group of patients, when purine analogs or fludarabine chemotherapy is applied on cellular immunodeficiency patients or neonates. It may be prevented by irradiating donor lymphocytes prior to transfusion.^[47]

C. Post-Transfusion Purpura:

The post transfusion purpura is a phenomenon that cause through the immunological disorder. In which the thrombocytopenia is produce within 2 to 14 days after transfusion.^[48] This type of adverse effect is producing by platelet alloantibodies in patients that sensitized from transfusion. The thrombocytopenia is a condition in which the low level of platelets in blood. The treatment of this adverse effect through the continued use of IVIG and corticosteroid dose and it recover within 3 weeks.^[49]

D. Red Blood Cell Alloimmunization:

It is a type of transfusion related immuno odulation effect that associated with multiple transfusions at a time. When the doctors are transfused of RBCs in a patient, they induce the formation of alloantibodies and these alloantibodies cause a major problem such as myelodysplastic syndromes.^[50] When a patient receive RBCs frequently from long time so these patients are suffered from sickle cell anemia like disease. Some clinical factors are seen that affect the rate of alloimmunization have been suggested, predicting which patients will form 1 or more alloantibodies after each RBC transfusion is not possible.^[51]

Plasma Therapy for Some Critical Disorders/Diseases: The plasma therapy is mostly used for the treatment of various critical diseases.

1. Cancer:

The plasma therapy is the best treatment for diminishing the cancer cells in body. Through this technique, treat neck and head final stages carcinoma without any pain and operation.^[52] The cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) is used for the treatment of tumor. It is used to remove the cancerous cell without damaging the body part.^[53] CAP contains various charged particles like as reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), UV etc. These charged particles are promote oxidative stress and prevent the signaling pathway in a human cells.^[54]

Figure 1: Cancer Treatment

When we treat a patients over multiple days with this therapy, so it reduces the volume of cancer and enhance the survival time of a patients, because the plasma therapy is inhibiting the proliferation and metabolism of cancer cells.^[55] This therapy is interfere with cell cycle and prevent the unwanted growth of cells. The both intracellular and extracellular ROS and RSN effect of CAP are differ, because it produces both oxidation-reduction reaction in infected cell.^[56] therefore, the ROS is creating a positive force that induced apoptosis, it is a internal program of cells death, and it’s damage the essential proteins and nucleic acid (like as RNA and DNA) that induced cell death.^[57]

2. Tuberculosis:

The Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection is a serious infection that spread in all over world and it is a major cause of illness and it mortality rate is high, In 2010 the 1.4 million patients are died through this infection.^[58] The diagnosis of this infection mainly through the sputum culture or smear microscopy.^[59] The blood plasma containing cytokines (IFN-λ- or TNF-α) are used for the treatment of severe tuberculosis and change the immune response.^[60] When start a initial treatment of tuberculosis with plasma therapy so researchers are observed the level of TNF-α, high level compare to normal range, but decrease the level of IFN-λ and IL-6. After the treatment with plasma therapy, increase the production of cytokines in the blood and reduce at the site of infection in the lung.^[61] Many researchers, show a meaning full data and observed a statistically significant changes in blood plasma of a infected patients, a interferon gamma-induced protein (IP-10) is secrete from many types of cells (including neutrophils, monocytes, endothelial cells) and it act as chemoattractant for monocytes/macrophase, T cells, NK cells and dendritic cells.^[62]

The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is responsible for the angiogenic, lymphangiogenic and vascular permeability. It influences the leukocyte trafficking and it perform the main role in lymphatic vessel during inflammation.^[63] Mostly, lungs disease is associated with the level of serum VEGF and angioprotein-2 but VEGF in the pathogenesis of TB is unclear.^[64]

3. Skin Disease (Aesthetic Dermatology):

The blood plasma containing platelets is very useful for the treatment of many types of skin disease like as- alopecia, Scars, Wound Healing, Inflammation and Skin Rejuvenation. In Plasma Reach Platelets (PRP) contain several growth factors that help in the treatment of various diseases.^[65]

The PRP is mostly used for the treatment of androgenic alopecia and used for hair thinning. The injectable formulations of plasma product containing PRP and PRP dalteparin and protamine microparticles (PRP-DP) are mostly given 2-3-week interval for 15 weeks to patients. ^[66] The PRP-DP is most effective than the simple PRP treatment because it increased more hair diameter compare to PRP. PRP is increase the proliferation of collagen fibers and fibroblast that helps in the hair growth and hair regeneration because it acts as a natural antioxidant. After 4-week treatment with PRP injection to one side of a patient’s scalp with male patterned frontal recant and hair thinning resulted in a growth rate of 0.109 mm/day compared to 0.062 mm/day on the other half of the head treat with saline control.^[67] The PRP containing CD34+ cells are used for the treatment of androgenic alopecia. The 2 groups are formed that suffered with baldness and containing minimum 5 patients in each group, first group treated with the CD34+ cells containing PRP while other group was treated with the interfollicular placental extract injections. When both groups were examine after 4 months, the CD34+ treated group showed a significant improvement in numbers of hairs, thickness and overall presentation than the other groups that treated with placental extract solution.^[68]

Skin rejuvenation, PRP is topically used for the treatment of dark circle and wrinkles on neck and face and provides smoothness to skin, because it contain various growth factors.^[69] The PRP injection is given to the patients continuously 3 months and after 3 months dermatologist evaluate the cured area with photograph from a dermascope and photographic image system and observed the average improvement of 24% for naso-labial folds, 28% for horizontal neck bands, 27% for skin micro-relief, 20% for snap test, 33% for skin homogeneity and texture, 22.5% for skin tonicity and observed the melanin level, color, epidermal stratum corneum and wrinkle volume.^[70]

The Scars is a major skin problem at a time in both female and male. It mostly causes through the cell damages/dead. The traumatic scars are caused by the cutaneous injuries and this damaging tissue is treating with the PRP therapy, nonablative laser and Fat grafting techniques.^[71] The combination of nonablative laser and PRP therapy is most effective against the any types of scars. The observers are evaluate the scar according to the Manchester Scar Scale (MSS) and using a four point scale to measure scar color, contour, texture, and distortion.^[72] All these techniques are used to remove traumatic scars.

Figure 2: Treatment of Scar

Other side, the Acne scars is formed when the pus and dead cells are deposit in skin. The Erbium fractional laser (FCL) therapy is used for the treatment of acne scars and after this therapy the topical PRP gel is applied on the laser site.^[73] A split face study used for measure the efficacy of L-PRP therapy. In this therapy, the one half of the face is treated with L-PRP injections and another half is saline injections after ablative carbon dioxide FCL therapy. The L-PRP is reduced very fast of scars compare to the other half side.^[74]

4. COVID-19:

The blood plasma therapy is not a new clinical technique rather its use in previous pandemic infection like as Spanish flu etc. The blood plasma containing antibodies recovered from past patients, are used for the treatment of corona virus disease (COVID-19) at this time.^[75] These monoclonal antibodies are neutralized the infection of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 viruses and it can be used for prevention and treatment of COVID-19.^[76] It hypothesized, firstly corona virus is attack on angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors and the second attack around 7-14 after seen the symptoms. ^[77] During this infection, the reduction of B lymphocyte is start and decrease the production of antibodies, result in, continue decline the level of lymphocyte and increase the level of inflammatory cytokine.^[78] When doctors start the plasma therapy of a corona patients so they observed the improvement in immune function and reduction in the formation of inflammatory cytokines.^[79]

Figure 3: Treatment of Covid-19

According to china data, when convalescent plasma therapy is given to seriously ill patients of corona virus, the very well improvement in patients condition and reduce the viral load.^[80] The adverse effect of convalescent plasma is very low compare to the other medicinal therapy because it contain high titer specific antibodies that bind with the virus cells and neutralized it.^[81]

5. HIV/AIDS:

The Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a highly mortality rated disease which transmit through the intercourse between the male and female. The main causing agent of this disease is human immune deficiency virus (HIV).^[82] The Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is used for reducing the viral load and treat the infection by inhibition of multiple viral proteins which are essential for the replication and proliferation of virus.^[83] The Broad neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) are collected from the previous patients that treat with suitable medicines. These bnAbs are neutralized the HIV-1 viral strain and these antibodies are required for the production of Anti HIV vaccines.^[84] These anti-HIV bnAbs are divided into two main groups, first and second generation. The first-generation antibodies are b12, 2G12, 4E10, and 2F5. First generation antibodies are obtained from the immortalized B cells of Epstein Barr virus (EBV) and generated by using phage-display methods. Other side, the second generation bnAbs are PG9, PG16, CH01, PGT145, PGT121, PGDM1400, 10-1074, 10E8, VRC01, 3BNC117, and CH103. The second-generation antibodies are high potential for neutralizing to infections than the first-generation antibodies.^[85] The trial of 3BNC117 antibodies on patients of HIV infected, after observation they showed the positive result and it enhance the production of broad neutralizing antibodies (bnAb), similarly, other monoclonal antibodies like as 10-1074 are act on the V3 glycan site ion and it reduce the infection of HIV.^[86]

According to the recent study, a researchers group generated a highly specific antibodies connected with the PGDM1400, VRC01 and 10E8v4.^[87] These antibodies are bind with the three specific sites of envelope protein are: membrane proximal external region (MPER), CD4, and V1V2 binding sites. This type of antibodies is showed the high potency against simian-human immunodeficiency viruses (SHIVs).^[88]

6. Ischemic Heart Disease:

The Myocardium infraction is the main cause of death that related to heart problems in our entire world. The myocardial infarction is usually occurred when a blood clot blocks blood flow to heart.^[89] In Ischemia, the myocardial cells are destroyed by ischemic attack and the cardiac muscles has very low potential to regenerate a new cell so it’s a main cause of heart attack.^[90] According to recent study, the Plasma rich platelets (PRP) have a potential to regenerate/repaired a myocardial cell that destroyed through the ischemic attack, because it contains various growth factors which help in the formation of cardiac cells.^[91] These growth factors are performing the role in the formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis) and they increase the number of capillaries, result as increase the blood flow within nutrients and essential requirements that required for cells regeneration.^[92] Some essential growth factors are VEGF, TGF-β and PDGF-BB which have effect as pro-angiogenic stimulators. The VEGF is used after the ischemic attack because it formed a new small blood vessels and while the TGF-β enhance the cell mitosis.^[93] The FGF and PDGF are a chemoattractants to smooth muscles and it main cause of growth of smooth muscle that increase the vessels size and produce a mature vessels.^[94] But when we combined of different growth factors in a single formulation and administered in a patients, it enhance neovasculorization because of this combinations have high potency to angiogenesis.^[95]

7. Endometrium Regeneration:

Plasma containing growth factors and cytokines are play a main role in wound healing, angiogenesis and regenerative procedure.^[96] These growth factors are performed the limited role in the obstetrics and gynecology such as reproductive medicine used in endometrium regeneration.^[97] The endometrium is a inner epithelial layer of uterus. It’s become thickens during the menstruation and its changes in own structural, molecular and biochemically at time pregnancy or menstruation.^[98] The thickness of endometrium is play a role in pregnancy and gestation.

Figure 4: Treatment of Infertility

According to gynecologist, in case the endometrium thickness is below 6 mm so this women probability for pregnancy is very less, because the menstrual cycle is not complete in this condition. For a suitable/complete pregnancy and embryo transfer the endometrium thickness is minimum 7 mm.^[99] When researchers find the results, they infuse the PRP in a group of women patients that’s endometrium thickness is less than 7. After the application of PRP, the thickness of endometrium was increase and the thickness is more than 7 in all patients and all women became pregnant after successful embryo transfer.^[100]

CONCLUSION:

The Plasma based therapy is mostly used in much critical condition. The exact mechanism of PRP is not known but according to studies and many clinical trials, the PRP is increased the level of growth factors in patients’ body. These growth factors are essential for the development and growth of the body. The PRP therapy is a best therapy for treat many critical diseases and its safe than the other medicinal therapy because the PRP therapy is produce less adverse effect compare to other therapy.

Development of tissues/cells is based on accurate coordination among epithelial, mesenchymal and endothelial morphogenesis. The growth factors and cytokines perform the main role in organ regeneration and tissue healing due to this effect, the PRP therapy is widely used after the organ transplantation and major surgery.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT:

I would like to thank Dr. Sachin Tyagi sir for support and valuable comments. I am grateful to Dr. Alimuddin Saifi for helpful advice and technical support.

AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS:

All authors participated in the literature search, interpretation of the articles reviewed analysis of the data, and review of the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the paper.

FUNDING:

There has been no funding for this writing.

CONFLICT OF INTERESTS:

The authors declare that they have no conﬂict of interest.

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Received on 31.08.2020 Modified on 20.09.2020

Res. J. Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics.2020; 12(4):163-171.

DOI: 10.5958/2321-5836.2020.00030.0