INTRODUCTION:

Nature has long provided a rich source of therapies in the form of medicinal plants for a wide range of ailments, dating back to ancient times. Plants have long been used for therapeutic purposes, both in the traditional and modern eras. Herbs have a variety of phytoconstituents, which contribute to their wide range of pharmacological activity, resulting in positive effects. According to the latest data from the WHO (World Health Organization) herbal medicines are used by 80% of people throughout the world for portion of their basic healthcare³¹. Cheaper remedies have surpassed traditional drugs in popularity because to their lower risk of unwanted effects and efficacy in treating chronic diseases.

Calotropis gigantea, also known as'madar'is a milky shrub that grows up to 1-3 metres tall and may be foundthroughout India. It belongs to the Asclepiadaceae family^1,2. According to a phytochemical analysis, Calotropis gigantea leaves include a resin-mudarine, as well as glycosides such as calotropin, uscharin, and calotoxin³. Calotropis is a genus with around six species including sister species. Calotropis gigantea and Calotropis procera being prevalent in India’s wastelands⁴. It has been demonstrated by earlier studies that the hydroalcoholic extract of flowers possesses hepatoprotective activity⁵. The aerial component of calotropis gigantea has already been found to have anti-diarrheal effects in castor oil-induced diarrhoea⁶. An analgesic effect of an alcoholic extract of the flowers was recently discovered⁷. C. gigantea flowers have traditionally been used to treat inflammation, ulcers, and asthma-like conditions⁸. C.gigantea roots are used in the Indian system of traditional medicine for the treatment of leprosy, dermatitis, syphilis, elephantiasis, ulceration, antidiarrheal, and cough. Calotropis gigantea's milky juice has been used to induce abortion and has been described as a strong purgative and gastrointestinal irritant⁹.

Figure: Calotropis gigantea Leaves

Taxonomical hierarchy of Calotropis gigantea:

Kingdom: Plantae

Subkingdom: Tracheobionta

Order: Gentianales

Division: Magnoliophyta

Super division: Spermatophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida

Subclass: Asteridae

Family: Asclepiadoideae

Genus: Calotropis

Species: Calotropis gigantea

Geographic Distribution:

All the species of Calotropis are drought-resistant, drought-tolerant and salt-tolerant. Air pollination is common, as is pollination by animals. As a result, such species can easily be found in the wild weed along the roadside, at the lagoon's edge, and in native meadows that have been overgrazed. It also thrives in sandy soil and low-rainfall locations. Calotropis species have been reported in Nepal, India, Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, Omen, Yemen, Afghanistan and Zimbabwe^10,11.

Chemical Constituent and its Structure:

Alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, phenolic tannins, cardenolides^12,13, flavonoids^14,15,16,sterols¹⁷ proteinases, calotropain-FI and calotropain-FII¹⁸, calotropin-DI and calotropin-DII¹⁹ and non-protein amino acid Giganticine²⁰are all reported to be present in Calotropis gigantea.

Alkaloid Cardenolides

Sterol Flavonoids

Traditional Uses of Calotropis gigantea:

Plant Part	Uses	Reference
Whole Plant	Used in the treatment of Leprosy	Lyengar et al.,1986
	Used in the treatment of Rheumatism	Subaramaniam,1999; Katiyar and Kolhe 2000-2001
	Used in the treatment of Bronchial Asthma	Shankara.,1979
	Used in the treatment of Pneumonia	Jain and Tarafder,1970
	Used as Purgative	Deka et al.,1984
	Used in treatment of Fever	Pal et al.,1999; Kumar et al.,2003
Fruit	Used in the treatment of Leucoderma	Lyengar et al.,1986
Leave	Used in the treatment of Pneumonia	Girach et al.,1997
Leave	Used as Vermicide	Tarafder,1984
Seed	Used in the treatment of Malaria	MaiKhuri and Gangwar,1993
Seed	Used in the treatment of Blood Clots	Chelvan,1998
Flower	Used in the treatment of T.B	Topno and Ghosh,1999
Flower	Used as Wound Healer	Reddy et al.,1988;Rao et al.,2000

Pharmacological Activities:

Antimicrobial Activity:

The anti-candida activity of aqueous, methanol, and petroleum etherextract of Calotropis gigantea leaves was discovered towards clinical isolates of candidakrusei, and candida albicans²¹. An aqueous extract of Calotropis gigantea was found to exhibit antibacterial activity against S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and klebsella pneumonia²². Aqueous extract of Calotropis gigantea latex was reported to substantially inhibits S.aureus, E.coli and C.krusei²³.

Analgesics Activity:

In thermal and chemical models in mice, an alcoholic extract of C.gigantea flowers was reported to have analgesic activity. The HPM and the acetic acid induced writhing test were used to assess analgesic activity. A single oral dose of ethanolic extract of the flower of C.gigantea reduced writhings and delayed paw licking time significantly²⁴. Albino rats were used to test the analgesic activity of an alcoholic extract of peeled roots of Calotropis gigantea. Eddie's hot plate method and acetic acid-induced writhings were both shown to be analgesic. The extract of root was given orally in doses of 250 and 500mg/kg, which significantly reduced the number of writhings and delayed paw licking time²⁵.

Anti-inflammatory Activity:

Ethanolic extract of Calotropis gigantea leaves was found to have anti-inflammatory activity against carrageena-induced paw edema in wistar albino rats. The anti -inflammatory effect of 400mg/kg after oral treatment of C.gigantea was shown to be more potent than 100mg/kg ibuprofen²⁶.

Wound Healing Activity:

The wound healing abilities of a C.gigantea root bark extract was investigated inwistar albino rats.For excision wound healing models, the rats were administered extract in the form of an ointment topically, while for incision wound healing models, Extract was given orally 100, 200, and 400mg/kg. According to the findings extract therapy hastens wound healing in rats²⁷.

Antipyretic Activity:

Chitme et al., discovered that a water ethanol (50:50) extract of Calotropis gigantea has antipyretic efficacy. The efficiency of antipyretics in albino rats and rabbits was investigated using yeast and TAB vaccine - induced pyrexia. Extract reduced fever and also controlled body temperature at dosage of 200 and 400mg/kg²⁸.

Hepatoprotective Activity:

In male Wistar rats, an ethanol extract of Calotropis gigantea stems was found to have hepatoprotective effects towards carbon tetrachloride induced liver damage. The extract dramatically reduced AST, ALT, and lipid peroxide levels, as well as providing efficient liver protection. Additionally, the extract protects the rats from oxidative damage²⁹.

Insecticidal Activity:

A methanol extract of Calotropis gigantea root bark as well as its petroleum ether fraction and chloroform, were tasted for residual film toxicity fumigant and repellent efficacy against numerous strains of tribolium castaneum larvae and adults. Methanolic extract outperformed chloroform fraction and petroleum ether fraction in terms of insecticidal activity against T.castaneum. There was no evidence of fumiganttoxicity in any of the samples³⁰.

Aerva lanata:

Aerva lanata belongs to Amaranthaceae family³². It is atype oftropical plant which grows in Africa, India, Sri Lanka, Java and Philippines. Aerva lanata is a weed that may be found all across India, especially in hot and humid areas.

Aerva lanata is used to treat diabetes, helminthic infection inflammation, skin disorders, cough, cholera, dysentery, kidney stone, headache, and diarrhea in traditional medicinal systems.A. lanata has been intensively examined for its therapeutic characteristics utilising advanced scientific procedures over the last two decades, and has been reported to have diuretic action³³, urolithiasis activity³⁴, anti-inflammatory activity³⁵, antimicrobial activity³⁶, anti-diabetic activity³⁷, nephroprotective activity³⁸, hepatoprotective activity^39,40, anthelmintic activity⁴¹, and antidiarrhoeal activity⁴².

Figure: Calotropis gigantea Leaves

Common Names:

Acaranthes lanata, Aerva elegans mog⁴³. It is known as Kapurijadi or Gorakhabooti and in English, it is known as Mountain knot grass⁴⁴.

Taxonomical hierarchy of Aerva lanata:⁴⁵

Kingdom: Plantae

Order: Caryophyllales

Phylum: Mangoliophyta⁴⁶

Class: Magnoliopsida

Subclass: Caryophyllidae⁴⁷

Division: Tracheophyta

Sub-division: Spermatophytina

Family: Amaranthaceae

Genes: Aerva

Species: Lanta

Botanical Name: Aerva Lanata

Cultivation:

Seed propagation is used to cultivate Aerva lanata. Each plant is placed in a row with a 30cm spacing between them. Sunlight is required for the plant's growth. These plants are grown during the month of September. It will flower in the first year of growing. To protect against external elements such as microorganisms, weeds, insects, and so on, Inorganic, organic, and synthetic fertilizers are employed during the cultivation process.Cow-dung, animal manure and plant waste are also utilized as organic fertilizers. Although it has little nutritional value, peat increases the plant’s absorption qualities.

Morphology:

The plant Aerva lanata is dioecious prostrate herb with a cylindrical branching root 7-12cm long, and 2-8mm thick, mildly twisted with humerous thin. Roots are externally pale yellowish brown and internally white. Leaves are simple alternating with complete obovate or suborbicular lamina border and have short petiole and exstipulate. Flowers are tiny, bisexual and greenish white and their stamens are attached to five lobed ovoid ovaries. The fruits are spherical in shape and compressed membranous utricle capsule with a single seed that is greenish in colour. Reinform, lustrous black coriaceous testa^48,49,50.

Chemical Constituents:

Canthin-6-one alkaloids, 10 - methoxy canthin, 6-methoxy beta carbolin -1- propionic acid, Beta -D- glucopyranosyloxycanthin -6- one, aervoside, 6- methoy beta - carbolin, ervolanine and propionic acid are among the physiologically active alkaloids, sugar, saponins and minerals are also present. Aerva lanata contain flavonoids, such as quercetin, galactoside, kaempferol, isohamnetic, flavonone glucoside pernisol and persinoside A and B.

Among the chemical ingredients are, benzoic acid, lupeol acetate, methyl grevullate, beta sitosteryl acetate, 24 different types of tannic acid, and 27 different types of terpenoids.^51,52,53,54

Flavonoid Quercetin

Isohamnetin Kaempferol

Beta sitosteryl acetate Lupeol acetate

Benzoic acid

Pharmacological Activities:

Anti-Urolithiasis and Diuretic:

An alcoholic extract of Aerva lanata was studied for itsdiureticproperties. At dosage of 800mg/kg, the alcoholic extract worked better as a diuretic than the control group. Aerva lanata aqueous solution (2g/kg body wt./ dose/for 28 days) reduced OSE and markers of crystal deposition in CaO₂ urolithic rats. The study’s findings indicated that Aerva lanata can be used to treat urolithiasis^55,56.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity:

Carrageenan-induced rat paw edema was suppressed by benzene and alcoholic extract of Aerva lanata shoots (800mg/kg), indicating anti-inflammatory effect⁵⁷.

Anti-Diabetic Activity:

Methanol extract of Aerva lanata indicated that the methanol extract (400mg/kg) hadgreaterantidiabetic effect than the standard medicineglibenclamidein streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats⁵⁸.

Hepatoprotective Activity:

A petroleumether extractable fraction of the entire plant Aerva lanata was examined in Sprague Dawley rats for its potential to protect against liver damage caused by CCL₄(carbon tetra chloride). Aerva lanata dramatically increased serum total protein and albumin/globulin ratios and reduced histopathological changes, and reduced hepatic lipid peroxidation⁵⁹.

CONCLUSION:

Calotropis gigantea and Aerva lanata are potential plant with many curative principles and economic values. They are used as a traditional medicinal plant with unique properties. The present review paper shows that both plants are popular remedies in Ayurvedic and traditional practitioners for the treatment of a range of ailments. Though Calotropisgigantea and Aerva lanata have various medicinal applications, but still the phytochemicals of these plantsneed to be standardized to explore its medicinal values with the help of various methods. Further research is necessary to elucidate the phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of these plants. Both the plants are potential source for the development of new drugs to pharmaceutical industry due to the presence of a number of phytoconstituents and their wide variety of pharmacological actions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Preeti Chaudhary, Assistant Professor at NCRD’s Sterling Institute of Pharmacy, Navi Mumbai for providing encouragement and helping me for carrying out this work and I am also thankful to Dr. Vipin Kumar Garg for his assistance for this paper.

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Received on 23.07.2022 Modified on 19.11.2022

Res. J. Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics.2023;15(1):19-23.

DOI: 10.52711/2321-5836.2023.00005